英語(yǔ)發(fā)展史的思維導(dǎo)圖？3、現(xiàn)代英語(yǔ)時(shí)期約15世紀(jì)至今。在16世紀(jì)，英語(yǔ)開(kāi)始發(fā)生了重大變化，其中包括語(yǔ)法和發(fā)音的規(guī)范化，引入了大量拉丁語(yǔ)和希臘語(yǔ)的詞匯。隨著英國(guó)的殖民擴(kuò)張，英語(yǔ)開(kāi)始在全球范圍內(nèi)傳播，成為國(guó)際通用語(yǔ)言。那么，英語(yǔ)發(fā)展史的思維導(dǎo)圖？一起來(lái)了解一下吧。
http://www.iselong.com/english/0001/1124.htm(英語(yǔ)簡(jiǎn)史(English Version))
A Brief Look at the History of English
The history of English is conventionally, if perhaps too neatly, divided into three periods usually called Old English (or Anglo-Saxon), Middle English, and Modern English. The earliest period begins with the migration of certain Germanic tribes from the continent to Britain in the fifth century A. D., though no records of their language survive from before the seventh century, and it continues until the end of the eleventh century or a bit later. By that time Latin, Old Norse (the language of the Viking invaders), and especially the Anglo-Norman French of the dominant class after the Norman Conquest in 1066 had begun to have a substantial impact on the lexicon, and the well-developed inflectional system that typifies the grammar of Old English had begun to break down. The following brief sample of Old English prose illustrates several of the significant ways in which change has so transformed English that we must look carefully to find points of resemblance between the language of the tenth century and our own. It is taken from Aelfric's "Homily on St. Gregory the Great" and concerns the famous story of how that pope came to send missionaries to convert the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity after seeing Anglo-Saxon boys for sale as slaves in Rome:
Eft he axode, hu e?re eeode nama w?re te hi of comon. Him w?s geandwyrd, t?t hi Angle genemnode w?ron. Ta cw?e he, "Rihtlice hi sind Angle gehatene, for ean ee hi engla wlite habbae, and swilcum gedafenae t?t hi on heofonum engla geferan beon."
A few of these words will be recognized as identical in spelling with their modern equivalents -- he, of, him, for, and, on -- and the resemblance of a few others to familiar words may be guessed -- nama to name, comon to come, w?re to were, w?s to was -- but only those who have made a special study of Old English will be able to read the passage with understanding. The sense of it is as follows: "Again he [St. Gregory] asked what might be the name of the people from which they came. It was answered to him that they were named Angles. Then he said, 'Rightly are they called Angles because they have the beauty of angels, and it is fitting that such as they should be angels' companions in heaven.' " Some of the words in the original have survived in altered form, including axode (asked), hu (how), rihtlice (rightly), engla (angels), habbae (have), swilcum (such), heofonum (heaven), and beon (be). Others, however, have vanished from our lexicon, mostly without a trace, including several that were quite common words in Old English: eft "again," eeode "people, nation," cw?e "said, spoke," gehatene "called, named," wlite "appearance, beauty," and geferan "companions." Recognition of some words is naturally hindered by the presence of two special characters, t, called "thorn," and e, called "edh," which served in Old English to represent the sounds now spelled with th.
Other points worth noting include the fact that the pronoun system did not yet, in the late tenth century, include the third person plural forms beginning with th-: hi appears where we would use they. Several aspects of word order will also strike the reader as oddly unlike ours. Subject and verb are inverted after an adverb -- ta cw?e he "Then said he" -- a phenomenon not unknown in Modern English but now restricted to a few adverbs such as never and requiring the presence of an auxiliary verb like do or have. In subordinate clauses the main verb must be last, and so an object or a preposition may precede it in a way no longer natural: te hi of comon "which they from came," for ean ee hi engla wlite habbae "because they angels' beauty have."
Perhaps the most distinctive difference between Old and Modern English reflected in Aelfric's sentences is the elaborate system of inflections, of which we now have only remnants. Nouns, adjectives, and even the definite article are inflected for gender, case, and number: e?re eeode "(of) the people" is feminine, genitive, and singular, Angle "Angles" is masculine, accusative, and plural, and swilcum "such" is masculine, dative, and plural. The system of inflections for verbs was also more elaborate than ours: for example, habbae "have" ends with the -ae suffix characteristic of plural present indicative verbs. In addition, there were two imperative forms, four subjunctive forms (two for the present tense and two for the preterit, or past, tense), and several others which we no longer have. Even where Modern English retains a particular category of inflection, the form has often changed. Old English present participles ended in -ende not -ing, and past participles bore a prefix ge- (as geandwyrd "answered" above).
The period of Middle English extends roughly from the twelfth century through the fifteenth. The influence of French (and Latin, often by way of French) upon the lexicon continued throughout this period, the loss of some inflections and the reduction of others (often to a final unstressed vowel spelled -e) accelerated, and many changes took place within the phonological and grammatical systems of the language. A typical prose passage, especially one from the later part of the period, will not have such a foreign look to us as Aelfric's prose has; but it will not be mistaken for contemporary writing either. The following brief passage is drawn from a work of the late fourteenth century called Mandeville's Travels. It is fiction in the guise of travel literature, and, though it purports to be from the pen of an English knight, it was originally written in French and later translated into Latin and English. In this extract Mandeville describes the land of Bactria, apparently not an altogether inviting place, as it is inhabited by "full yuele [evil] folk and full cruell."
In tat lond ben trees tat beren wolle, as togh it were of scheep; whereof men maken clothes, and all ting tat may ben made of wolle. In tat contree ben many ipotaynes, tat dwellen som tyme in the water, and somtyme on the lond: and tei ben half man and half hors, as I haue seyd before; and tei eten men, whan tei may take hem. And tere ben ryueres and watres tat ben fulle byttere, tree sithes more tan is the water of the see. In tat contré ben many griffounes, more plentee tan in ony other contree. Sum men seyn tat tei han the body vpward as an egle, and benethe as a lyoun: and treuly tei seyn soth tat tei ben of tat schapp. But o griffoun hath the body more gret, and is more strong, tanne eight lyouns, of suche lyouns as ben o this half; and more gret and strongere tan an hundred egles, suche as we han amonges vs. For o griffoun tere wil bere fleynge to his nest a gret hors, 3if he may fynde him at the poynt, or two oxen 3oked togidere, as tei gon at the plowgh.
The spelling is often peculiar by modern standards and even inconsistent within these few sentences (contré and contree, o [griffoun] and a [gret hors], tanne and tan, for example). Moreover, in the original text, there is in addition to thorn another old character 3, called "yogh," to make difficulty. It can represent several sounds but here may be thought of as equivalent to y. Even the older spellings (including those where u stands for v or vice versa) are recognizable, however, and there are only a few words like ipotaynes "hippopotamuses" and sithes "times" that have dropped out of the language altogether. We may notice a few words and phrases that have meanings no longer common such as byttere "salty," o this half "on this side of the world," and at the poynt "to hand," and the effect of the centuries-long dominance of French on the vocabulary is evident in many familiar words which could not have occurred in Aelfric's writing even if his subject had allowed them, words like contree, ryueres, plentee, egle, and lyoun.
In general word order is now very close to that of our time, though we notice constructions like hath the body more gret and three sithes more tan is the water of the see. We also notice that present tense verbs still receive a plural inflection as in beren, dwellen, han, and ben and that while nominative tei has replaced Aelfric's hi in the third person plural, the form for objects is still hem. All the same, the number of inflections for nouns, adjectives, and verbs has been greatly reduced, and in most respects Mandeville is closer to Modern than to Old English.
The period of Modern English extends from the sixteenth century to our own day. The early part of this period saw the completion of a revolution in the phonology of English that had begun in late Middle English and that effectively redistributed the occurrence of the vowel phonemes to something approximating their present pattern. (Mandeville's English would have sounded even less familiar to us than it looks.) Other important early developments include the stabilizing effect on spelling of the printing press and the beginning of the direct influence of Latin and, to a lesser extent, Greek on the lexicon. Later, as English came into contact with other cultures around the world and distinctive dialects of English developed in the many areas which Britain had colonized, numerous other languages made small but interesting contributions to our word-stock.
The historical aspect of English really encompasses more than the three stages of development just under consideration. English has what might be called a prehistory as well. As we have seen, our language did not simply spring into existence; it was brought from the Continent by Germanic tribes who had no form of writing and hence left no records. Philologists know that they must have spoken a dialect of a language that can be called West Germanic and that other dialects of this unknown language must have included the ancestors of such languages as German, Dutch, Low German, and Frisian. They know this because of certain systematic similarities which these languages share with each other but do not share with, say, Danish. However, they have had somehow to reconstruct what that language was like in its lexicon, phonology, grammar, and semantics as best they can through sophisticated techniques of comparison developed chiefly during the last century. Similarly, because ancient and modern languages like Old Norse and Gothic or Icelandic and Norwegian have points in common with Old English and Old High German or Dutch and English that they do not share with French or Russian, it is clear that there was an earlier unrecorded language that can be called simply Germanic and that must be reconstructed in the same way. Still earlier, Germanic was just a dialect (the ancestors of Greek, Latin, and Sanskrit were three other such dialects) of a language conventionally designated Indo-European, and thus English is just one relatively young member of an ancient family of languages whose descendants cover a fair portion of the globe.
英語(yǔ)發(fā)展史：
英語(yǔ)真正的歷史應(yīng)該從公元5世紀(jì)時(shí)入侵英國(guó)的三個(gè)日耳曼部落說(shuō)起. 這幾個(gè)部落分別是：盎格魯人， 撒克遜人和朱特人，他們從今天的德國(guó)北部和丹麥出發(fā)，然后橫渡北海。那時(shí)候英國(guó)的本地居民都說(shuō)凱爾特語(yǔ)。但由于入侵者的逼迫，他們都被趕到了西部和北部-主要是現(xiàn)在的威爾士，蘇格蘭和愛(ài)爾蘭。盎格魯人來(lái)自Englaland他們的語(yǔ)言稱為Englisc（古英語(yǔ)）-這兩個(gè)詞就是現(xiàn)在England和English的前身。
日耳曼入侵者在公元5世界通過(guò)英國(guó)東海岸和南海岸進(jìn)入英國(guó)。
入侵英國(guó)的這幾個(gè)日耳曼部落，其語(yǔ)言基本相近，這些語(yǔ)言的融合形成了我們現(xiàn)在稱的古語(yǔ)言。古英語(yǔ)的發(fā)音與書(shū)寫與現(xiàn)在的英語(yǔ)并不一樣。因此以英語(yǔ)為母語(yǔ)的人對(duì)于閱讀古英語(yǔ)也有很大的困難。然而，現(xiàn)代英語(yǔ)最常用的詞語(yǔ)中，大約就有一半起源于古英語(yǔ)。例如be,strong和water。古英語(yǔ)一直被使用到1100年左右。
1066年，諾曼底（現(xiàn)法國(guó)的一部分）公爵威廉率兵征服了英國(guó)。征服者帶來(lái)了他們的語(yǔ)言-一種法語(yǔ)，而這也成為皇室，統(tǒng)治階級(jí)和商人階級(jí)的語(yǔ)言。曾經(jīng)一段時(shí)間，出現(xiàn)了以語(yǔ)言區(qū)分階級(jí)的現(xiàn)象，下層階級(jí)說(shuō)英語(yǔ)，上層階級(jí)說(shuō)法語(yǔ)。在14世紀(jì)英語(yǔ)重新成為英國(guó)主流語(yǔ)言，但也增加了許多法語(yǔ)單詞，這就是中世紀(jì)英語(yǔ)。
英語(yǔ)的最早形式是由盎格魯-撒克遜移民于5世紀(jì)帶到英國(guó)的一組西日耳曼語(yǔ)（Ingvaeonic）方言，被統(tǒng)稱為古英語(yǔ)。中古英語(yǔ)始于11世紀(jì)末，諾曼征服英格蘭；這是該語(yǔ)言受到法語(yǔ)影響的時(shí)期。早期現(xiàn)代英語(yǔ)始于15世紀(jì)后期引進(jìn)的的印刷機(jī)到倫敦，在印刷國(guó)王詹姆斯圣經(jīng)和開(kāi)始元音大推移。
自17世紀(jì)以來(lái)，現(xiàn)代英語(yǔ)在英國(guó)和美國(guó)的廣泛影響下在世界各地傳播。通過(guò)各類這些國(guó)家的印刷和電子媒體，英語(yǔ)已成為國(guó)際主導(dǎo)語(yǔ)言之一，在許多地區(qū)和專業(yè)的環(huán)境下的語(yǔ)言也有主導(dǎo)地位，例如科學(xué)、導(dǎo)航和法律。
由于英國(guó)過(guò)去在世界各地有許多殖民地的緣故，因此在現(xiàn)代，英語(yǔ)在許多國(guó)家與地區(qū)，都是通用語(yǔ)言或官方語(yǔ)言之一：
1、英語(yǔ)在下列國(guó)家和地區(qū)是第一語(yǔ)言：英國(guó)、美國(guó)、加拿大、澳大利亞、巴哈馬、巴巴多斯、百慕大、圭亞那、牙買加、新西蘭、圣基茨和尼維斯和特立尼達(dá)和多巴哥。
2、英語(yǔ)在下列國(guó)家和地區(qū)中是通用語(yǔ)言，這些國(guó)家和地區(qū)包括多米尼克、圣路西亞和圣文森特和格林納丁斯、密克羅尼西亞聯(lián)邦、塞浦路斯。
3、英語(yǔ)是下列國(guó)家和地區(qū)的官方語(yǔ)言（之一）：斐濟(jì)、新加坡、加納、岡比亞、基里巴斯、肯尼亞、納米比亞、尼日利亞、馬紹爾群島、巴布亞新幾內(nèi)亞、所羅門群島、薩摩亞群島、塞拉利昂、斯威士蘭、博茨瓦納、坦桑尼亞、贊比亞；
馬拉維、津巴布韋、南非、萊索托、厄立特里亞、利比里亞、塞舍爾、埃塞俄比亞、烏干達(dá)、盧旺達(dá)、蘇丹、南蘇丹、蘇格蘭、印度、巴基斯坦、馬耳他、湯加、瓦努阿圖、紐埃。
簡(jiǎn)述英語(yǔ)的發(fā)展史如下：
1、古英語(yǔ)時(shí)期約5世紀(jì)-11世紀(jì)。
古英語(yǔ)是從盎格魯-撒克遜人的日耳曼語(yǔ)言演化而來(lái)的。這個(gè)階段的英語(yǔ)受到了盎格魯-撒克遜人、丹麥人和諾曼底人的影響。主要文獻(xiàn)作品有《貝奧武夫》和《英國(guó)人的歷史》等。英語(yǔ)詞匯中的許多基礎(chǔ)詞匯（如house、mother）可以追溯到古英語(yǔ)時(shí)期。
2、中英語(yǔ)時(shí)期約11世紀(jì)-15世紀(jì)。
中英語(yǔ)是由諾曼底人的法語(yǔ)和古英語(yǔ)混合而成的。在這個(gè)時(shí)期，英語(yǔ)逐漸成為國(guó)內(nèi)使用的主要語(yǔ)言，并在普通人之間流行起來(lái)。著名的中英語(yǔ)文學(xué)作品包括《坎特伯雷故事集》和《亞瑟王傳說(shuō)》。
3、現(xiàn)代英語(yǔ)時(shí)期約15世紀(jì)至今。
在16世紀(jì)，英語(yǔ)開(kāi)始發(fā)生了重大變化，其中包括語(yǔ)法和發(fā)音的規(guī)范化，引入了大量拉丁語(yǔ)和希臘語(yǔ)的詞匯。隨著英國(guó)的殖民擴(kuò)張，英語(yǔ)開(kāi)始在全球范圍內(nèi)傳播，成為國(guó)際通用語(yǔ)言。英語(yǔ)的不同變體如美式英語(yǔ)和英式英語(yǔ)逐漸形成。
學(xué)習(xí)英語(yǔ)的好處：
1、溝通能力。
英語(yǔ)是全球通用的語(yǔ)言，在國(guó)際交流和商務(wù)領(lǐng)域中非常重要。通過(guò)學(xué)習(xí)英語(yǔ)，你可以更容易地與來(lái)自不同國(guó)家和文化背景的人進(jìn)行溝通。
2、工作機(jī)會(huì)。
掌握英語(yǔ)可以為你創(chuàng)造更廣泛的職業(yè)機(jī)會(huì)。
英語(yǔ)語(yǔ)言的發(fā)展史：
1、盎格魯――撒克遜時(shí)期。
從公元前55年到公元五世紀(jì)，羅馬人兩次入侵不列顛，對(duì)其統(tǒng)治達(dá)400年之久，當(dāng)時(shí)英語(yǔ)還存在只有凱爾特人的語(yǔ)言――凱爾特語(yǔ)。公元410年，羅馬人由于應(yīng)付自己國(guó)家局勢(shì)的變化，被迫離開(kāi)了不列顛，接踵而來(lái)的是日耳曼人，他們有三個(gè)部落組成：盎格魯人、撒克遜人和朱特人，他們使用各自的日耳曼方言，勉強(qiáng)可以交流。后來(lái)三個(gè)部落合在一起，使用統(tǒng)一的語(yǔ)言――盎格魯－撒克遜語(yǔ)，也就是我們今天所說(shuō)的“古英語(yǔ)”。
2、古英語(yǔ)時(shí)期
從公元793年開(kāi)始，北歐的維京人從斯堪的納維亞入侵英國(guó)，對(duì)英語(yǔ)主要產(chǎn)生了兩個(gè)方面的影響：受北歐語(yǔ)的影響，英語(yǔ)的詞尾變化和名詞的性逐漸消失，所以今天的英語(yǔ)不像其他的歐洲語(yǔ)言一樣有著復(fù)雜的語(yǔ)法、復(fù)雜的詞尾變化，以及名詞和形容詞性、數(shù)、格的變化。
3、中古英語(yǔ)時(shí)期
中古英語(yǔ)時(shí)期是英語(yǔ)發(fā)展史的第二個(gè)階段（1150年―1500年），公元1066年，法國(guó)諾曼底公爵威廉率領(lǐng)法國(guó)人入侵英格蘭，在黑斯廷斯戰(zhàn)役中戰(zhàn)勝英軍，成為不列顛的統(tǒng)治者，后人稱之為征服者威廉，這段歷史時(shí)期被稱為“諾曼底征服”。
以上就是英語(yǔ)發(fā)展史的思維導(dǎo)圖的全部?jī)?nèi)容，1.英語(yǔ)的發(fā)展要追溯到公元410年，羅馬人離開(kāi)不列顛之后，日耳曼部族包括盎格魯、薩克遜開(kāi)始涌入。2.羅馬人走了，沒(méi)有留下他們使用的拉丁語(yǔ)。反倒是實(shí)用的盎格魯薩克遜語(yǔ)言進(jìn)入到當(dāng)?shù)厝说恼Z(yǔ)言，帶去了新的詞匯。3.公元597年。
